JUDGING THE USEFULNESS OF LAMENT IN CONTEMPORARY CHRISTIANITY

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Judging the Usefulness of Lament in Contemporary Christianity

Of all Old Testament genres, lament is perhaps one of the least understood and misrepresented. A lament, while surely a complaint, possesses a deeper root of understanding about God and his sovereign power. One who laments should have in mind not a mere complaint about undesired external circumstances but the purpose of God’s action to allow such circumstances. The book of Lamentations is perhaps the most striking example of biblical lament; yet, numerous other examples are also present. As an overarching model for lament, the book of Lamentations grants contemporary Christians insight into the unchanging character of God and their own connection with the people of God in the Old Testament.

The book of Lamentations is made up of five poems, each an expression of grief over the fall of Jerusalem. Like a eulogy at a funeral, these laments are intended to mourn a loss—in this case, the loss of a nation. The latter half of chapter 3 implies that the purpose behind the book’s graphic depictions of sorrow and suffering was to produce hope in the God whose compassion is “new every morning” (v. 23) and whose faithfulness is great even to a people who have been condemned for their own unfaithfulness. The author, while not identified in the book itself, may have been the prophet Jeremiah, who was said to have “uttered a lament for Josiah.” (2 Chron 35:25) Lamentations was probably written shortly after Jerusalem’s fall in 586 b.c. (ESV, 2016)

This post will determine the usefulness of lament in a contemporary Christian context. In doing so, three truths will be conveyed: 1) the truth of New Testament parallels of Old Testament lament, 2) the truth of lament’s vitality to right doxology, and 3) the truth that nothing new exists in this world. Upon examining these truths, it should be concluded that lament is not only good for contemporary Christianity but also necessary.

New Testament Parallels of Old Testament Lament

            Lament is certainly not unique to the Old Testament; New Testament parallels exist. While the Old Testament contains considerably more texts in the genre of lament, several New Testament texts proceed from the genre of lament. Believers should understand that lament is good for contemporary Christianity and is present in the entirety of the Bible.

The author of Lamentations passionately laments over the Lord’s anger with Judah. (ch. 2) Such is not to suggest that the author does not understand the justice in Judah’s destruction but rather that he laments over not only what God has done but also the underlying reason for such destruction: namely the people’s wickedness and rebellion. The author writes, “How the Lord in his anger has set the daughter of Zion under a cloud! He has cast down from heaven to earth the splendor of Israel; he has not remembered his footstool in the day of his anger.” (Lam 2:1)[1] Similar language is offered in Matthew’s Gospel. When Jesus proclaims a woe to unrepentant cities, he declares, “And you, Capernaum, will you be exalted to heaven? You will be brought down to Hades. For if the mighty works done in you had been done in Sodom, it would have remained until this day.” (Matt 11:23) The foundation of lament, in both cases, should not be neglected. While the lament in Lamentations reveals sorrow over God’s wrath employed through destruction, the core issue is wickedness and unrepentance, which still subsists today. One might not consider laments over Judah’s destruction or even Jesus’ woe over Capernaum beneficial to contemporary Christianity; yet, beneath the surface level of geographical location is the underpinning of lament: namely grief over people’s wickedness.

The Apostle Paul presents a lament in his letter to the Romans. (Rom 7:7-25) The Apostle’s focus is on the Mosaic law and the futility of people’s attempt to uphold it. In a striking sense, Paul’s lament here resembles the model presented in Old Testament laments. The pattern of Old Testament laments includes three primary participants: the I (the lamenter whether singular or plural), you (God), and them (enemies). (Crisler, 2020, p. 67) “The movements of the “I” tend to dominate lament and include (1) prior promise, (2) suffering, (3) cry of distress, (4) deliverance, and (5) praise.” (Crisler, 2020, p. 67) Paul’s words, in Romans 7, hold an evident resemblance of these movements and participants. Paul, a learned Jew, likely knew the laments of old and their relevance to his contemporary circumstances. Additionally, like the heart of Matthew’s text (11:23), Paul understood and was broken by persistent evil among his people. The Apostle writes:

For I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate. Now if I do what I do not want, I agree with the law, that it is good. So now it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me. For I know that nothing good dwells in me, that is, in my flesh. For I have the desire to do what is right, but not the ability to carry it out. (Rom 7:15-18)

For those who might disregard the Old Testament and consider the New Testament superior, texts such as these reveal a deeper foundation than mere complaint. To rightly lament is to understand the underpinning reason for destruction and wrath, i.e. the foundational issue for the biblical lamenter is not destruction itself but rather the reason for destruction. Remembering such a foundation would be advantageous for contemporary Christianity. When God’s people move beyond the surface level visibility of destruction to the reason for such destruction, repentance and, therefore, God’s mercy is possible. God does not employ wrath unjustly; yet, his purpose in doing so is never destruction itself but rather the repentance of his people, which is desperately needed in contemporary Christianity.

Lament: A Theology Vital to Doxology

            A proper theology of lament is a crucial forerunner to proper doxology. Without an understanding of one’s sin, he or she may not realize the necessity of repentance and, thus, the justice in God’s discipline and wrath. Lament then is essential to right doxology. Both praise and lament must stand stalwartly linked together in contemporary Christianity. Dan Wilt writes:

If a theology of resurrection (the empty tomb, renewal, personal transformation, healing, miracles) does not stand together in worship with a theology of suffering (the full cross, intercession, trouble, sorrow, struggle), then I contend our worship is out of accord with both the Scriptures and the daily news. (Wilt)

Lament then should not be neglected but should stand in union with praise; only then will theology lead to right doxology.

            A seemingly lost aspect of corporate worship is lament. While many consider lament a private matter, God’s people publicly lamented in the Old Testament. The Psalms have been called the hymnal of Israel; hints of Lamentations are found then in Israel’s hymnal. The author of Lamentations, amidst his complaint, takes time to praise God for his faithfulness, evidence that the writer’s focus, even in lament, is on the Lord who is ultimately gracious to his people. After a lengthy complaint, the author writes, “But this I call to mind, and therefore I have hope: the steadfast love of the Lord never ceases; his mercies never come to an end; they are new every morning; great is your faithfulness.” (Lam 3:21-22) Further, the lamenter here acknowledges God’s sorrow in destruction and his will to have compassion in accordance with his steadfast love. (Lam 3:32-33) Christian hope is rooted in Christ; therefore, it is good for contemporary Christianity to understand the hope of the Lord even amidst plaguing anguish.

            David offers a lament for Jonathan and Saul (2 Sam 1:17-27), which he intended to be taught to the people of Judah, (2 Sam 1:18) i.e. David’s private lament was intended for public use. Furthermore, David also presents a deeper purpose in lament than mere inconvenience. “Your glory, O Israel, is slain on your high places! How the mighty have fallen,” writes David. (2 Sam 1:19) David’s lament here should be understood as being both heard and overheard. (Linafelt, 2008, p. 500) The purpose of lament here is not only a personal plea but public worship of God. The author (David) cries privately while also becoming a voice of God’s people collectively. In Christian worship, lament realizes the imperfection of the world and laments over injustice and that which God hates. Surely, destruction is worthy of lament; yet, a right focus on the need for repentance conceives the natural result of right (corporate) worship.

            Lamenting psalms are also present in the Old Testament text. The same concepts should be employed by God’s people even today. “…the very real experiences of those petitioning the psalms of lament are often a catalyst for expressed feelings of abandonment and desertion which warrant prayer intended to rouse God into action.” (Waltman, 2018, p. 209) When lament and praise stand together, the reality of pain is acknowledged by God’s people as well as the realization that he alone may heal. With such a realization, believers may appropriately worship God. Rather than a mere complaint based on inconvenience or discomfort, God’s people should understand the vitality of lament to contemporary Christian worship.

There Is Nothing New under the Sun: That for Which Humanity Has Lamented for Ages Has Not Changed 

            Lament, specifically utilizing the Old Testament model, is also useful for contemporary Christian audiences because nothing has changed. Solomon declared that there exists nothing new under the sun, (Eccl 1:9) i.e. the issues God’s people encountered in the Old Testament are the same issues that persist today. Therefore, that for which humankind has lamented for ages has not changed. To list several examples, racism is not new, murder is not new, war is not new, oppression is not new, division is not new, and indeed, child sacrifice (abortion in Western society’s case) is not new. Thus, lament should not be neglected in contemporary Christianity.

            To neglect lamenting is to ignore the reality of evil when truly Christians are called to do justice and love mercy; (Mic 6:8) to do justice and love mercy then is to hate evil. The author of Lamentations writes, “This was for the sins of her prophets and the iniquities of her priests, who shed in the midst of her the blood of the righteous.” (Lam 4:13) The sins with which the author dealt are the same sins that subsist in contemporary Christian culture. Lament, therefore, is necessary for healing, for without first lamenting, God’s mercy will not be afforded. Lament gives a voice to sorrow. Those who remain silent remain complacent. Regarding contemporary issues, which surely existed in the Old Testament, silence is “the weaponized tool of preference for ignoring the three-part plights of sexism, racism, and classism within the majority of…Christian communities.” (Landfair, 2016, p. 25) Corporate lament is useful in contemporary Christianity because it affords God’s people the opportunity to acknowledge both the wickedness that exists and the power of God to heal such evil.

The evil of racism, murder, debauchery, and more was present in the time Lamentations was written; it is also present today. Modern lament, therefore, connects today’s church with the people of God in the Old Testament. Lament could certainly happen in stages; nonetheless, the first stage must be vocality. (Dickie, 2019, p. 146) The book of lamentations, although likely composed by one person, is offered as the collective lament of Israel. When the lament was offered, a voice was given to the people of God and, therefore, sorrow over their destruction and the cause thereof. In a similar manner, God’s people today must have a voice to offer God in lament. Injustices that exist today are not new but must continually be fought by the church. God’s people today experience the same feelings of abandonment and sadness as did God’s people in the Old Testament. The book of Lamentations could mirror the church’s cry today. Lament then is not only useful in contemporary Christianity but also necessary.

God’s work in the lives of his people should stir such conviction that produces lament. The church is surely linked to those of whom Lamentations speaks and confront the same issues and sins. Nothing new exists under the sun; therefore, while the Old Testament offers striking laments, it is profitable, in contemporary Christianity, to lament over the same items.

Lament: A Useful and Necessary Device

            God’s people have offered laments since the beginning of their existence. The book of lamentations might be considered the most prominent example of lament; yet, it is certainly not unique in its genre. Moreover, lament is not exclusive to the Old Testament. Not only does the Old Testament model of lament exist in New Testament texts, the employment of lament is useful for contemporary Christianity in that God’s people need it to rightly worship since they face the same issues as did God’s people of old. To judge the usefulness of lament in contemporary Christianity, it is good to understand the connection God’s people today have with God’s people during the time of Lamentations. Jesus promised trouble in the world. (John 16:33) To ignore the reality of pain and the presence of evil is to live a lie. Lament then is certainly useful for contemporary Christianity and should be executed with wisdom, understanding, and a realization that the one true God remains on the throne and extends matchless grace to his people.

References

Baker, Robin (2019). Jeremiah and the Balag-Lamet? Jeremiah 8:18-23 Reconsidered. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 138 (No. 3), 587-604.

Crisler, Channing L. (2020). The “I’ Who Laments: Echoes of Old Testament Lament in Romans 7:7-25 and the Identity of the ἐγώ. Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Vol. 82 (No. 1), 64-83.

Dickie, June F. (2019). Lament as a Contributor to the Healing of Trauma: An Application of Poetry in the Form of Biblical Lament. Pastoral Psychology, Vol. 68 (No. 2), 145-156.

(2016). Introduction to Lamentations: The Holy Bible: English Standard Version. Crossway.

Landfair, Valerie Ranee (2020). Complicity and Silence: How Lament Could Lead Us toward a Better Place. Mutuality, Vol. 27 (No. 3), 24-28.

Linafelt, Tod (2008). Private Poetry and Public Eloquence in 2 Samuel 1:17-27: Hearing and Overhearing David’s Lament for Jonathan and Saul. Journal of Religion, Vol. 88 (No. 4), 497-526.

Waltman, Joshua C. (2018). Psalms of Lament and God’s Silence: Features of Petition Not Yet Answered. Evangelical Quarterly, Vol. 89 (No. 3), 209-221.

Wilt, Dan. 5 Reasons lament and praise must stand together in worship. Danwilt.com. https://www.danwilt.com/5-reasons-lament-and-praise-must-stand-together-in-worship/

Waltke, Bruce K. (2007). An Old Testament Theology. Zondervan.

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[1] All biblical references are taken from the English Standard Version (ESV) of the Bible unless otherwise noted.

CONTRAST OF WORLDVIEWS: ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY

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Contrast of Worldviews: Islam and Christianity

Of all world religions, Christianity and Islam are two of the most prominent. Although derived from the same origins, both faiths have diverged into manifold differences with respect to worldview. The consequences of both Christianity’s and Islam’s worldviews are extensive in nearly every culture of the world. Those who do not understand the foundations of both faiths might incorrectly claim the God of Christianity to be the same as that of Islam. Contrasting Christianity and Islam, however, would reveal a different truth.

            Christians should understand the Islamic worldview through a threefold lens: 1) the Islamic doctrine of tawhid, 2) the Islamic view of sin and its remedy, and 3) the Islamic perspective on the person and nature of Jesus Christ. These three fundamental differences create an irreconcilable contrast between the two faiths. Nevertheless, with such an understanding, Christians may replace false assumptions about Islam with enlightenment and greater love for image-bearers in the Muslim faith.

The Islamic Worldview: Tawhid

            Vastly disparate from the Christian worldview, the Islamic worldview is founded upon the doctrine of tawhid (Schdmit, 2020, p. 32), the Arabic term meaning oneness of God. For this reason, polytheism may never be accepted in Islam. While a monotheistic view is also taken by Christians, the doctrine of tawhid infers that the Christian triune God may not be possible, for God is one alone; to the Muslim, there is only Allah. In the Islamic view, Allah has no physical attributes (Schmidt, 2020, p. 32); thus, the Christian concept of imago Deo, that humankind is created in the image of God (Gen 1:27), is an impossible feature. While Christians believe in a personal relationship with God through Jesus Christ (John 14:6, Heb 4:14-16), in the Islamic view, God cannot “maintain a personal relationship with humans…[but]…depends on his creatures to earn his respect in order to receive compassion” (Schmidt, 2020, p. 33). Such drastic contrasts between Christianity and Islam make it impossible for the two faiths to reconcile.

            The doctrine of tawhid does not allow for the Islamic faith to understand Jesus Christ as divine (Schmidt, 2020, p. 33). Therefore, although Islam understands Jesus to be a valuable and important prophet, even believing in the virgin birth, the person of Jesus in Christianity stands in stark contrast to that of Islam. In fact, in “a period of serious discussions about the nature of Jesus, the Qur’an denounced all disputation about the nature of Jesus as vain (Qur’an 19:34)” (Schmidt, 2020, p. 33). In the Islamic view, Jesus is a messiah, albeit not the Messiah, as he certainly is in Christianity. Such a view (by Muslims) radically impacts one’s outlook on God, humankind, and the means of salvation.

            Because of the Islamic worldview, i.e. namely the view that one must earn Allah’s compassion by pleasing him, devout Muslims find themselves persistently striving to walk the right path as given by Allah: the concept of jihad.[1] Understanding the Islamic worldview consists of understanding jihad correctly. In its simplest terms, jihad is a Muslim’s best efforts to walk the right path of Allah (Schdmit, 2020, p. 48). In its most extreme form, jihad has come to be associated with terrorism, although the term does not inherently imply such. Contemporary Arab interpretations of Quranic texts, nonetheless, take the form of animosity toward Jews, Christians, and all who do not follow the ways of Allah (Gilman, 2014, pp. 117-118), which assuredly contributes to the widespread increase of global terrorism. Where the Christian worldview tends to offer grace and mercy even to those who are opposed to the faith, Islamic worldview, by contemporary interpretations, seeks to destroy any who oppose the will of Allah. Thus, even the demeanors of Allah and the Christian triune God stand countered to one another.

            Moreover, Islamic worldview and the concept of jihad expects women to endure sufferings and live under the authority of men in solidarity with the community of believers (Schmidt, 2020, p. 45). While both women and Muslims are not a monolithic group (Jafar, 2005, p. 36), the belief in the inferiority of women to men is seemingly ubiquitous in contemporary devout Muslims. Christianity views women as equal to men; even Paul’s instructions for wives to submit to their husbands (Eph 5:22-23) are written in the context of all believers submitting to one another (Eph 5:21). The Christian worldview then does not see women as inferior to men but rather as complementing to men while both submit to one another and ultimately to God. The Islamic worldview approaches women as inferior to men and to merely serve the purpose of procreation (Schmidt, 2020, p. 45).

            Severely dissimilar to the Christian worldview, the Islamic worldview is derived from the doctrine of tawhid; everything a devout Muslim believes and practices stems from the concept of Allah’s oneness and separation from humankind. Even the concept of Jesus is impacted in such a worldview, for Allah may not be associated with any human and is, in fact, incapable of a personal relationship with humankind. Humankind, however, according to Islamic worldview, must strive to walk in the right path of Allah to achieve compassion from him. These vital components of Islam provide a complete worldview that, although possessing some similarities to Christianity, operates in polar opposition to Christianity.

Islamic and Christian Views of Sin

            Most world religions hold some view of morality. David Marshall writes:

In contrast to the moralistic, trivializing, hedonistic, or therapeutic transformations of what was formerly understood as sin, all world religions, if they are in one way or another religions of salvation or redemption, persistently maintain a dissonance between what we are and what we are meant to be, a contradiction between the factual state of humans and their true destiny (Marshall and Mosher, 2016, p. 23).

Both Christians and Muslims have views of sin, which are manifold in many respects. Whereas sin (and the understanding thereof) is vital to Christianity, it is merely marginal in Islam (Schdmit, 2020, p. 68). Sin, in fact, takes a plurality of meanings in the Islamic view, which ambiguates the topic (Marshall and Mosher, 2016, p. 40). To Christians, humanity is inherently evil with each person falling short of God’s standards by nature (Rom 3:23). Many Christians and Christian groups subscribe to the concept of original sin with some going as far as determinism (Schdmit, 2020, p. 69). To Muslims, however, humanity is merely less than Allah but also capable of good (Schdmit, 2020, p. 71). Both religions then hold distinct views of sin: Christianity centralizing and Islam minimizing its concept.

            Since sin is a reality in both Islam and Christianity, each must consequently offer a solution for redemption. In Christianity, the remedy for sin is Jesus Christ (Rom 6:23, 10:9-10). As the Messiah and God himself, Jesus alone offers total atonement for the sin of anyone who receives him, a concept which would be considered blasphemous in the Islamic perspective. Islam asserts that atonement must be made between man and Allah directly rather than through a mediator. Additionally, it is up to each man to execute the will of Allah so that he might be atoned, i.e. man is directly accountable to Allah. Initially, the latter part of the concept is similar to many Christian perspectives. Even most determinists would not argue against the compatibility of human responsibility; yet, the Islamic perspective does not require a mediator while Christ the Messiah is a necessity in Christianity. From the Islamic perspective:

God cannot humble himself to die on the cross for the sin of mankind as did the Son, Jesus. God is majestic and glorious, unlike the image of man; man is very humble and small beneath the Most High. It would violate the divine attributes of God to have his Son die for the sin of mankind at the cross (Schmidt, 2020, p. 71).

The only possibility of atonement for Muslims, therefore, is to achieve a level of compassion from Allah by accomplishing his will and carrying out his tasks. In this manner, Islam is heavily-works-based. Devout Muslims will perpetually strive for the satisfaction of Allah.

            While Christianity emphasizes the importance of understanding sin and its consequences, Islam minimizes it. Both faiths demand a cure for sin; yet, the feat is accomplished in vastly disparate ways. For Christian believers, according to Scripture, Jesus Christ is the mediator between the Father and humankind and is yet also God himself in the flesh. No such mediating atoner is required in Islam but only pleasing Allah to the point of receiving his compassion. The Islamic worldview then approaches the will of Allah in a serious manner with the realization that if one does not execute Allah’s tasks, he is certainly doomed. Christianity, however, relies on the righteousness of Christ; therefore, the ransom has already been paid irrespective of one’s works. Thus, the Islamic worldview often leads to radical measures in accomplishing the will of Allah. For a Christian to employ such drastic measures, there must be a grave misunderstanding of God’s grace through Jesus Christ. With such contrasting views of sin, both Islam and Christianity hold opposing views of the remedy.

The Person and Nature of Jesus in Islam and Christianity

            Perhaps, the most significant difference in the Islamic and the Christian worldview is the person and nature of Jesus. While Jesus is understood as the Son of God and, in fact, incarnate God himself in Christianity, it is blasphemy to refer to Jesus as divine in Islam (Qur’an 5:17, 5:72). Jesus is referenced in Islam and considered an important figure but no more important than other prophets in the faith. Islam even acknowledges the virgin birth but denies perhaps the most important aspect of the life of Christ: his death and resurrection.

Islam supports Jesus as a messenger from God to Israel and even a messiah (albeit not the only Messiah). Traditional Muslim interpretation of the Qur’an suggests that Jesus was not crucified on the cross but that God raised him to himself (Qur’an 4:158). The Christian version of the Ascension then occurs after the death and resurrection of Christ while the Islamic version does not include Jesus’ death.[2] The greatest disagreement between Islam and Christianity, regarding the nature of Jesus, centers around his divinity. The Islamic doctrine of tawhid does not allow for God to either have the form as a human, have a personal relationship with people, or for any human to be considered divine. Christianity is christocentric; therefore, to reconcile by adopting Islamic doctrine is an impossibility for Christianity.

To understand the vital differences between Islam and Christianity, one must realize the point of separation which is no more crucial than that of the person and nature of Jesus. One may not claim Christianity and deny the death, resurrection, and divinity of Jesus. Contrarily, one may not claim Islam and admit these three points of contention. With no bipolarity, Jesus is mysteriously both human and God; this is the essence of Christianity and blasphemous to the Islamic perspective.

An Irreconcilable Discord

            Realizing the foundational issues of Islamic worldview exposes the fact that an irreconcilable discord subsists between Islam and Christianity. Such a statement does not negate the responsibility of Christians to love everyone including Muslims. Certainly, there exist commonalities between Christianity and Islam; yet, the fundamental doctrines of Islam perpetuate a worldview that is not only inconsistent with Christianity but may never be reconciled. Through the Islamic doctrine of tawhid, the concept of sin and its remedy, and the perception of Jesus Christ, a worldview is created that stands opposed to Christianity. The Christian’s response then should be greater love toward a people who misunderstand truth and who deny the gospel. The Christian worldview includes love toward everyone, which is the place of origin for resolving significant differences between the two faiths.

References

Brown, Daniel W. (2017). A New Introduction to Islam (3^rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.

Deedat, Amhed (n.d.). A Collection of Comparative Religion Booklets. Islamic Propagation Centre.

Esposito, John L. (1999). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press.

Gilman, Sander L. (2014). Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: Collaboration and Conflict in the age of Diaspora. Hong Kong University Press.

Haleem, M.A.S. Abdel (2010). The Qur’an (Reissue ed.). Oxford University Press.

Jafar, Afshan (2005). Women, Islam, and the State in Pakistan. Gender Issues, Vol. 22 (No. 1), 35-55.

Lippman, Thomas W. (1995). Understanding Islam: An Introduction to the Muslim World (3^rd ed.). Meridian Books.

Marshall, David and Lucinda Mosher (2016). Sin, Forgiveness, and Reconciliation: Christian and Muslim Perspectives. Georgetown University Press.

Netton, Ian Richard (2011). Islam, Christianity, and the Mystic Journey: A Comparative Exploration. Edinburgh University Press.

——— (2019). Islam, Christianity, and the Realms of the Miraculous: A Comparative Exploration. Edinburgh University Press.

——— (2006). Islam, Christianity, and Tradition: A Comparative Exploration. Edinburgh University Press.

Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2^nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.

Schmidt, Muhammad Wolfgang G.A. (2020). [Course syllabus for MRS 718 Islam and Christianity]. MRS 718 Islam and Christianity (Mac Lynn, Ed.), Nations University.

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[1] From the term’s earliest references, jihad should not be primarily understood as a holy war but as a striving to do the will of Allah. The concept of a holy war emerged later because of the term’s distortion.

[2] Aamhed Deedat suggests that Jesus did not actually die on the cross but only fainted and then awoke. Such a view is not common and is discounted by many Muslims (Deedat, n.d., 92-93, 99-100).

SCRIPTURE AND HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION ON CONGREGATIONAL PARTICIPARTION

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Scripture and Historical Interpretation on Congregational Participation

Of the necessary adjustments attributed to the Reformation, congregational participation is perhaps one of the most all-encompassing and lasting. In a Western society which discouraged participation in corporate worship, Reformers gave hope to believers by implementing the vernacular language, music accessible to the common person, and a biblical canon in the language of the people. Congregants were given the resources to participate in worship and did so with potency. Centuries of expansion, however, brought the church to where it is now regarding worship: a place of consumer-driven and self-centered worship practice. Perhaps subconscious and unintended, the elaboration of what the Reformers intended with congregational participation has caused a morphing in perspective. Shifting back to the original goal of congregational participation is not impossible but requires two primary proposals. This post will examine two primary differences between today’s worship practices and the Reformation’s concept of congregational participation. Furthermore, two essential proposals will be presented to inhibit the continuation of these two detrimental realities of modern Christian worship.

Today’s Consumer Mentality

            Observations might easily lead to the conclusion that modern Protestant worship has taken the appearance of consumerism, i.e. the average congregant seeks his or her preference when it comes to worship of the living God. The Reformation’s impact on worship participation would likely be considered positive by most Christians. Perhaps, however, the exaggeration of the concept of participatory worship has created a greater chasm between solidly biblical worship and the consumerist mentality. Many local churches today offer what might described as a concert rather than a corporate worship experience. Even the music utilized in congregational worship now includes melodies that are more difficult to sing than prior to the Reformation.[1] Such practices are indicative of churches which offer entertainment to consumers rather than a fellowship of believers who worship God.

            While congregational singing became the standard during the Reformation era (Mac, 2020, p. 15) because of Martin Luther’s (1483-1546 AD) drastic influence, it is unlikely that Luther himself could foresee what would become of Protestant worship in the centuries to follow. Luther championed accessibility for all believers. For Luther, because God the Father is accessible to his people through Christ the Son, Christian living and worship should be as well. Lutherans worshiped and prayed corporately in the vernacular language, i.e. German, heard sermons in the same, and sang hymns in their native tongues. Such was vital to the Christian worship experience for Luther. In fact, Luther succeeded in publishing a German Bible so that his parishioners could understand and interpret the text on their own.

            Nevertheless, the centrality of congregational participation developed in the church over the centuries to take the modern form of consumerism it holds today. Around the globe, commercial practices by megachurches, e.g. Hillsong Church have impacted nearly all facets of Western Christian life. Christian worship in most Western churches today tends to emphasize a conversational and therapeutic approach to worship (Gerardo, 2017, p. 377). The ending result has been, although perhaps not purposely, detrimental to the church. Worship exists for the glory of God alone; thus, the consumer mentality which pervades the modern church has created a rift in doxological Christian worship.

“Luther's liturgical reform was guided by the principle that if the Scriptures did not expressly reject a particular practice, the church was free to keep it. Consequently, Lutheran worship retained much of the ceremonial practice of Catholic worship” (White, 2013); yet, congregational participation became central to Reformed worship and persists today. The Reformers all shared the common belief that Christian worship is participatory in nature. The goal of participatory congregational worship, however, was not to form an industry and offer consumers the best option that matches their own desires. Since worship subsists to give glory to God, believers should have little to no consideration of their own desires but rather of what God desires and how his people worship him. The consumer mentality developed over the centuries perhaps began with good intentions. What has evolved, nonetheless, is a culture of professing Christians who seem to approach worship as an element of self-gratification. Certainly, reform needed to occur in congregational participation. One would be right, however, to question whether such a concept has produced biblical worship or merely a manmade device aimed at pleasing people.

            Congregational participation in corporate worship was a drastic reality of the Reformation. Vastly disparate from the previous centuries, the Reformers’ view of an approachable God through Jesus Christ influenced the way they worshiped. Such philosophy exists today but perhaps with an even greater vigor. Not only do modern believers participate in worship, the abundance of offerings for worshipers has seemingly created a consumer mentality among professing Christians. While intended for good, congregational participation should still have in mind the glory of God through Jesus Christ rather than the appeasement of human desires.

Today’s Self-Centered Mentality

             Jesus says, “But the hour is coming, and is now here, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for the Father is seeking such people to worship him” (John 4:23).[2] Based on Jesus’ words here, what are commonly referred to as seeker-sensitive churches should conceivably reexamine their approach to worship, for (at least in the context of worship), God is the one who seeks rather than people. An astonishing realization regarding Christian worship, however, is that the act involves the community of God’s people.[3] God’s people are primarily a unified body rather than a combination of individuals. “Paul’s ‘organic’ conception of the Church is significant to understanding both its covenantal and sacramental nature. What is most important to both understandings, however, is the identification of the Church as the body of Christ. The Church derives its identity from identification with Christ himself” (Peay, 2001, p. 93). Christ died for his singular bride, which the plurality of all believers form. Christian worship then is employed corporately and is designed to form the body of Christ.

Maria Cornou writes, “Worship is formative; it not only expresses but forges the community’s belief. Worship practices are informed and shaped by doctrine, and simultaneously they embody and express particular theological beliefs and model ethical praxis” (Cornou, 2019, pp. 166-167). In an embellished effort to rid themselves of Catholic practice, Protestant churches in the centuries following the Reformation moved beyond the practices of the Reformers by inflating individualism to greater significance than community. “It is generally recognized that the Enlightenment and the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century constituted a watershed in the religious sensibilities of Christians in the West” (Davis, 2008, p. 326). Humanist thought permeated Reformation-era culture even in the church resulting in centuries of development around individualism. What has perhaps been lost due to the Reformation’s impact is horizontal worship, i.e. the corporate body worshipping God. Biblical worship and indeed the Christian faith itself have always revolved around God’s covenant with a people rather than mere individuals. While the Reformers, therefore, saw the great need for congregational participation in Christian worship, the idea has grown to a greater degree than perhaps intended.

Disagreement with the ritualistic practices of Roman Catholic worship during prior to the Reformation infused Reformed thought. The notion was that congregational participation would protrude sincerity among believers in their worship practice. John Witvliet writes:

Historian Edward Muir describes the Protestant Reformation as a movement from medieval Catholic concern for ritual to Protestant concern for sincerity… John Martin describes the emergence of Protestantism as both a reflection and cause of a radically new Renaissance conception of selfhood – a “new emphasis on self as subject” – which reflects a “characteristically modern concern: to state that someone is sincere or not sincere, to see particular utterances and works of art and literature as essential expressions of individual selves, above all, to desire to connect speech with feeling” (Witvliet, 2011, p. 292).

What began with good intention, to bring the church to a place of right and sincere worship, however, has become a present-day display of humanism’s influence on Christianity. Stalwartly linked to today’s consumer mentality, today’s self-centered mentality is also an overemphasis of Christian individualism.

            God’s covenant work is among a unified body rather than mere individuals, i.e. each individual Christian, although possessing unique gifts and a personal relationship with God, is part of a larger picture: namely the body of Christ and his redeeming work within her. Christ, the ultimate example of humility, took on the form of a human and gave his life for those whom he loves (Phil 2:1-11). The Reformation’s shift toward congregational participation in worship was surely necessary; yet, an exaggeration of something good is what developed over the course of the subsequent centuries. Protestant churches today still employ congregational participation but also seem to focus on individuals rather than the body of Christ in existence for the glory of God. The Reformation has assuredly impacted Christian worship and achieved many positive goals. Today’s mentality, nonetheless, seems immensely different from Reformed Protestant thought.

Beneficial Modifications

            To cease the exaggeration of congregational participation to the point of both consumer and self-centered mentality, two respectable proposals would assist: 1) cling to liturgical practices while simultaneously allowing for congregational participation and 2) approach worship as up-reach rather than out-reach.

Liturgy

Adherence to a liturgy should not imply strict legalism and loyalty to the practice but rather to the God for whom it is designed to declare. “At its best, liturgy enables a worshipping community to proclaim and celebrate God’s reconciling love made known in Christ and transforms that community to be the body of Christ in the world” (Meyers, 2004, p. 106). Christian worship should be a vivid display of the body of Christ rather than a hodgepodge of individuals who seek their own indulgences.

            The Reformation brought several necessary changes to the church including congregational participation in worship. Due largely to Scripture, the music, and the prayers being employed in the vernacular language, believers were able to faithfully worship God with their own personal understanding. The goal in doing so, however, was likely not to elevate the individual over the body (of Christ) but instead to give individuals a role within the body; liturgy aids in that purpose. With liturgy employed, God’s people share common languages, emphases, and understandings. Rather than preachers acting as celebrities to whom his congregants listen, a liturgy ensures those who lead in worship remain faithful to the themes and scriptures and the biblical text from which they are derived. Rather than merely observing church leaders employ worship practices, Luther and other Reformers rightly contended that the entire congregation should participate. To correct the course toward self-centeredness and consumerism, clarification on the corporate nature of the church through liturgy could have been supported in a stronger manner. Where the Catholic Church retained a strict and legalistic adherence to ritual, centuries of congregational participation developed into today’s common individualistic approach to worship. A tie to liturgy, however, would likely at least curtail that development, forcing believers not only to understand the corporate nature of the church but also to realize that worship does not exist for the affections of humankind but for the glory of God.

            Moreover, the Reformation saw the centrality of Scripture in Christian worship. While not a negative aspect, the centrality of Scripture has seemingly developed into what could be considered a show of teachers in the pulpit, i.e. pastors and gifted communicators have become idolized because of their teaching ability. Such a perspective easily engrains in people that Scripture is the most important part of the worship service when the reality is that all elements of Christian worship, e.g. music, ordinances, etc. work together to form a whole with no one element being more essential than another. Liturgy grants an intentional method for churches to practice Christian worship in a way that does not glorify any aspect of the worship service above the God it is designed to honor.

            There seems to be a middle area on the spectrum between strict legalism and the severing thereof to the point of enhanced individualism. The connection to liturgy would likely cause local churches to examine their practices and consider their trajectories. The Reformers certainly offered necessary changes to the church; yet, their developments over the centuries have seemingly given today’s church a tainted appearance. Reclaiming liturgy for the glory and worship of God in a corporate sense would surely enhance local churches’ worship practices and diminish the impact of individualism.

Up-Reach

            A second proposed modification would be to approach worship as up-reach rather than out-reach. Today’s local churches tend to place emphasis on utilizing worship to evangelize. Worship, however, exists for God and his people. In fact, one who is not a Christian has no ability to worship God, for he or she is not in the Spirit. Certainly, the church is given the task of preaching the gospel to the world (Matt 28:19-20); yet, worship, i.e. glorifying God is the primary task of the church. All other tasks stem from the overarching goal of worship.

            If the church would prioritize worship and approach it as act solely devoted to declaring the Lord, the temptation to craft consumer-driven worship practices would likely be diminished or eliminated. The Reformation created a way for God’s people to worship sincerely; centuries of development, however, caused a self-centered and consumer-driven approach to worship. For God’s people to realize worship that exists solely for his own glory, the act should be approached not as a method of out-reach but only as an act which brings triune God pleasure.

            Such a proposal requires a shift in theological teaching from church leaders. The language used in speaking of worship should shift as well as the actions implemented in local church worship. If church leaders would begin to communicate in a way that references worship as up-reach rather than out-reach, congregants would begin to shift their own thoughts and perspectives. Consumer-driven and self-centered worship then would be severed, thus moving the church to the Reformers’ original desire for congregational participation: a body of believers gathered for God’s purposes irrespective of their own preferences.

The Bittersweet Reality of the Reformation’s Impact on Congregational Participation

            Few would argue against the benefits the Reformation had on congregational participation. God’s people were given an opportunity and a mode of worshiping the living God together. Martin Luther himself, however, appreciated liturgy and utilized it in his local church contexts. It is apparent then that his goal was not permanent riddance of liturgy but rather for the people of God to also participate (along with church leaders) in the liturgy. Centuries of congregational participation’s development provided the way for unintended consequences to manifest in today’s worship practices. Consumer-driven and self-centered worship practices have arisen in the church and are evident in many of today’s contexts. This paper has offered two primary proposals for curtailing the continuation of such detriments: liturgy and a focus on up-reach rather than out-reach. Of the vast good that the Reformation brought in the way of congregational participation, the bittersweet reality also includes the negative consequences, which surely exists in the church today. There exists no impossibility of shifting back to the purity of the Reformers’ desire; yet, the church as a whole and her leaders must be intentional about doing so.

References

Banks, John C. (2006/2007). Black Church Music: An Essay on the “Other” Worship Experience of Black Mainline Protestants. Journal of Religious Though, Vol. 59/60 (No. 1/2), 161-164.

Cornou, Maria Eugenia (2019). Formative Worship ‘at the End of the World’: The Worship Practices of Methodists, Baptists, and Plymouth Brethren in the Emergence of Protestantism in Argentina, 1867-1930. Studies in World Christianity, Vol. 25 (No. 2), 166-186.

Davis, John Jefferson (2008). Real Presence, the Ontology of Worship, and the Renewal of Evangelical Doxological Imagination. Evangelical Review of Theology, Vol. 32 (No. 4), 323-345.

Loewe, Andreas J. (2013). Why Do Lutherans Sing? Lutherans, Music, and the Gospel in the First Century of the Reformation. Church History, Vol. 28 (No. 1), 69-89.

Mac, Lynn (2020). [Course syllabus for MRS 411 The Reformation]. MRS 411 The Reformation, Nations University.

Marti, Gerardo (2017). The Global Phenomenon of Hillsong Church: An Initial Assessment. Sociology of Religion, Vol. 78 (No. 4), 377-386.

Meyers, Ruth A. (2004). The Promise and Perils of Liturgical Change. Anglican Theological Review, Vol. 86 (No. 1), 103-114.

Peay, Steven A. (2001). ‘The Gospel Made Visible’: Toward Renewing Sacramental Worship in the Congregational Tradition. International Congregational Journal (No. 1), 87-98.

White, James F. (2013). Protestant Worship of the Reformation Era. Twenty Centuries of Christian Worship (Robert E. Webber, Ed.).

Witvliet, John D. (2011). ‘Planting and Harvesting’ Godly Sincerity: Pastoral Wisdom in the Practice of Public Worship. Evangelical Quarterly, Vol. 87 (No. 4), 291-309.

Wootton, Janet, H. (2011). The Wilderness and Christian Song. International Congregational Journal, Vol. 10 (No. 1), 75-90.

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[1] The Reformers desired to simplify congregational music in the name of accessibility to the common congregant.

[2] All biblical references are taken from the English Standard Version (ESV) of the Bible unless otherwise noted.

[3] This is not to suggest that private worship does not exist.

JUDGING THE IMPACT OF THE REFORMATION

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Judging the Impact of the Reformation

Future generations tend to possess greater insight into the impact of significant movements throughout history. With the advantage of seeing the events in hindsight, such movements may be analyzed and considered based on their both benefits and drawbacks. The Protestant Reformation is such a movement which may be considered with the advantage of future knowledge. To properly judge the impact of the Reformation, one must consider both positive and negative impacts, of which there certainly subsist both. Three primary areas of impact that should be considered are 1) the Reformation’s impact on congregational worship participation, 2) division in the church, and 3) exaggerated reform beyond what was necessary at the time. The positive and negative impacts of the Reformation aid in rightly judging its impact on the church both during its era and in the centuries to come.

Congregational Worship Participation

            An apparent impact of the Protestant Reformation is that which it has had on congregational worship. Prior to the Reformation, worship participation through singing was not only discouraged but not allowed in the church. The Reformation, however, brought positive changes to Christian worship by encouraging congregational participation through singing (Mac, 2020, p. 15), prayer, and the public reading of Scripture. “Emphasis on vernacular language opened the Bible and theology to the common man” (Mac, 2020, p. 30). While the Holy Scripture was set in vernacular languages prior to the Reformation, the publication of the Luther Bible in 1534[1] enjoyed the most popularity among Christians. Martin Luther (1483-1546 AD) employed action on what was seemingly a tipping point in church history; rather than claiming sole responsibility for reform in the church, Luther aided in the spread of Reformation thought and action.

            Congregational participation became vital to Christian worship during the Reformation. While Catholics have loosened their own regulations on congregational participation today, the concept grew during the Reformation.

The establishment of an enduring choral tradition is one of the hallmarks of the Lutheran Reformation. One of the key motivators for the development of such a distinctive devotional tradition that placed music and singing at the center of its worship and teaching was undoubtedly the personal affinity Martin Luther had for music (Loewe, 2013, p. 69).

Luther, a hymn-writer himself, wrote texts and composed tunes designed for congregational participation in the vernacular language, i.e. German for himself and his congregants. In fact, Luther’s excommunication from the Catholic Church likely gave him greater opportunity to employ such congregational participation among his future congregants.

            The goal of Christian worship among Protestants during the Reformation was active participation with a focus on the teaching of Scripture. For the Reformers, right Christian worship implied a return to the centrality of Scripture (Mac, 2020, p. 29). Luther’s goal was not a chasm within the church but a reform of what was practiced and a return to the purity of Christian faith. In fact, the division occurring during the Reformation saddened Martin Luther. Nonetheless, with the Reformation already in motion, it was too late to correct its course. Thus, reform came from the Protestants rather than the Catholics. The teaching of the Bible, i.e. the sermon became the central focus of Christian worship, whereas Catholic worship took on a more sacramental nature. In fact, the Lutheran model only kept two of the sacraments instead of the seven employed by Catholics: Communion and Baptism (Maag, 2017). Even the Lutheran Mass itself did not utilize all five parts of the Ordinary but only the Kyrie and the Gloria. J.S. Bach’s (1685-1750 AD) famed B-Minor Mass is significant in that the composer includes all five parts of the Mass Ordinary, although he was Lutheran himself. In such changes, it is evident that the Reformation gave rise to the centrality of Scripture and a move away from strict legalism and formality in Christian worship.

            The Reformation saw necessary shifts in Christian worship in the way of congregational participation. Where worship participation was previously reserved for the elite, educated, and only church leaders, the Reformation’s impact on Christian worship has been significant. Even now congregational participation seems to be typical and was eventually adopted by Catholics. Although no longer distinctly Protestant, the Bible taught in the vernacular language, songs sung by the congregation in the vernacular language, and congregational participation is a drastic impact of the Reformation and one that Luther (among other Reformers) saw to be necessary.

Further Division in the Church

            A seemingly negative impact of the Reformation is the vast division caused. Even for Luther, when he returned to Wittenberg from Wartburg Castle, “he found the reform had moved more quickly and radically than desired or could be sustained” (Mac, 2020, p. 24). Luther’s goal, when he posted his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg (1517 AD), was not to divide the church but rather to unify her by reform, i.e. return to the basics of Christian faith. “The most important distinction for Luther’s political thought was between the lower and the higher capacities of man (nature and reason) on the one hand and grace and revelation on the other” (Mac, 2020, p. 24). Perhaps, Luther lived during a time when enough people were ready for change that his qualms with Rome began an unexpected movement throughout Europe. In an unfortunate sense, however, the church as known at the time, became perhaps further divided than ever before.

            Certainly, reform was necessary in certain areas. For example, the disallowance of priestly marriage was challenged by Luther, as he eventually married as a Protestant. In this area, Luther’s impact continued through future generations. Of John Calvin’s (1509-1564 AD) marital covenant, John Witte Jr. writes:

Building on a generation of Protestant reforms before him, Calvin constructed a comprehensive new theology and law that made marital formation and dissolution, children’s nurture and welfare, family cohesion and support, and sexual sin and crime essential concerns for both church and state. He drew the Consistory and Council of Geneva into a creative new alliance to guide and govern the reformation of the domestic sphere (Witte, 2018, p. 282).

One might question, however, whether the necessity for reform was more important than the necessity of unity. Church history reveals that from the point of the Protestant Reformation, the church has continually divided into more sects with finer distinctions than their predecessors. Secondary issues have become primary issues in many cases and have seemed to cause further division in the body of Christ. Believers should consider the benefits of the Reformation but also the costs and if they were worth the outcome.

            Reformers challenged a plurality of thoughts exuded by the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation, many of them giving their lives for doing so; yet, the desired reforms were necessary. Perhaps, the cost of reform (namely division in the church), however, could have been avoided. One may only speculate if another solution could have been employed rather than total separation from the Catholic Church. In fact, what occurred because of the Reformation does not seem to represent the New Testament and 1^st-century church. With all the positive impacts of the Reformation, the further division in the body of Christ, which the movement brought, is among the least desired outcomes.

Exaggerated Reform beyond What Was Necessary

            Martin Luther understood the necessity of church reform, which is why he challenged the Catholic Church with not only the posting of his 95 Theses but also his teachings and sermons. When he discovered the drastic consequence the movement had in Wittenberg and across Europe, however, he grew discouraged, for what seemed to be overreach was not what he desired. “Reformation in Switzerland emphasized elements other than those championed by Luther. Far from being monolithic, the Protestant Reformation spawned many offshoots” (Mac, 2020, p. 9). In what would seem to be greater division and separation not only from the Catholic Church but also from other Protestant groups, finer miniscule differences caused more splits.

John Calvin came from a legal background and stressed the sovereignty of God. He became a formidable force in the Reformation, molding Reformed theology. Zwingli advanced a view of the Lord's supper that is reflected in New Testament language. The Anabaptists rediscovered immersion of adults as the proper design of baptism. The Anglicans favored many Catholic practices without the hierarchy. The Protestant states varied in their attitudes toward monasteries, but there was general agreement among the Protestants that monastic life was a mistaken form of Christian life (Mac, 2020, p. 9).

Although he held his own theological beliefs on secondary issues, Luther’s opinions favored a basic return to the fundamental doctrines of Christianity. Such was his purpose in proposing reform. What occurred, however, was an unstoppable movement of believers who reformed even secondary doctrines and extrabiblical thought. In fact, “the Protestant Reformation has been cited by scholars of European history as contributing to the rise of nationalism, individualism, capitalism, and secularism” (Trepanier, 2010, p. 206). Luther’s reformed arguments emphasize fundamental Christian doctrine rather than the futility of secondary and extrabiblical issues.

Where most of Europe saw drastic responses to reform, English Reformers took a more subtle approach. “The early English Reformers were Catholic in their tastes, or at least eclectic…” (Rex, 1999, p. 39). The impact of the Reformation, therefore, was largely dependent on geographical location. It could be suggested that what occurred in the English Reformation is perhaps closer to what Luther desired in Wittenberg and the surrounding areas of Europe. In non-English-speaking areas:

what began as a “protest” became an advocacy for a new understanding of religious authority and Christian practice. The impact of the Reformation continues to be felt. Its tenets of faith ring loud and clear, even in a world that has gone through many revolutions of thought since the 16^th century (Mac, 2020, p. 9).

            Reformers surely desired changes in church doctrine and practice, none more than the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther. Nonetheless, from Luther’s teachings, writings, and actions, the exaggeration of reform saddened him, as his desire was for greater unity rather than division. Even Protestants held their differences in doctrinal issues. For example, while all Protestants opposed the Catholic Church, teaching salvation by faith alone, Calvin extended the doctrine to include that of predestination, which certainly caused further rifts in the church, even among Protestants. Anabaptists’ belief on immersion further separated the body of Christ by creating yet another group of Protestants. What was a good intention of the Reformation then, namely reform of fundamental issues, became exaggerated to the point of causing what seems to be further disunity. Considering the impact of the Reformation in this regard, it is right, therefore, to weigh the benefits against the detriments.

Overarching Judgment of the Reformation’s Impact

            The impact of the Reformation may be seen from both positive and negative perspectives depending on the topic considered. It is right, understanding centuries of knowledge post-Reformation, to judge the overarching impact of the movement, its strengths and weaknesses, and whether or not another solution would have been better. Certainly, one’s personal background influences his or her thought of the Reformation’s impact. Even Luther himself experienced questions regarding what occurred because of his 95 Theses. The three primary areas discussed here offer a compact and precise standard by which to judge the impact of the Reformation. The development’s sway on congregational worship, church unity (or lack thereof), and the level of reform should be deliberated when making a judgment. As with many historical events, one may point to both positives and negative results. The sum of all impacts, however, affords one the opportunity to make a right judgment on the outcomes of the Reformation and whether it was overall advantageous or damaging to the body of Christ.

References

Brooke, Sebastian (2004). Reformation Rhetoric: The Genealogye of Heresye. Reformation and Renaissance Review, Vol. 6 (No. 3), 374-393.

Lee, Trepanier (2010). The Protestant Revolution in Theology, Law, and Community. Political Science Reviewer, Vol. 39, 206-231.

Loewe, Andreas J. (2013). Why Do Lutherans Sing? Lutherans, Music, and the Gospel in the First Century of the Reformation. Church History, Vol. 28 (No. 1), 69-89.

Mac, Lynn (2020). [Course syllabus for MRS 411 The Reformation]. MRS 411 The Reformation, Nations University.

Maag, Karin (2017). The Reformation: What Did We Gain? What Did We Lose? Retrieved from https://www.thebanner.org/features/2017/09/the-reformation-what-did-we-gain-what-did-we-lose

Rex, Richard (1999). The Early Impact of Reformation Theology at Cambridge University, 1521-1547. Reformation and Renaissance Review: Journal of the Society for Reformation Studies, Issue 2, 38-71.

Searle, Joshua T. (2017). The Reformation in Ukraine and Russia and Its Relevance for Today. European Journal of Theology, Vol. 26 (No. 1), 55-64.

Steinmetz, David C. (2017). Things Old and New: Tradition and Innovation in Constructing Reformation Theology. Reformation and Renaissance Review, Vol. 19 (No. 1), 5-18.

Witte, John (2018). The Marital Covenant in John Calvin’s Geneva. Political Theology, Vol. 19 (No. 4), 282-299.

Wootton, Janet, H. (2011). The Wilderness and Christian Song. International Congregational Journal, Vol. 10 (No. 1), 75-90.

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[1] The New Testament was published earlier in 1522.